Question

Evolution of Computers Tutorial!!!

Answer 1

The need to consider occurs in people with the advent of civilization. They needed to carry out commercial transactions carried out surveying, manage inventory harvest, watch out for astronomical cycles. To do this, since ancient times have been invented various tools from countable sticks and abaca, during the development of science and technology have evolved into calculators and a variety of computing devices, including personal computers.
The most important stages in the development of computer technology to the advent of the personal computer.

Manual and automatic computing means

1642 - "Pascaline" Blaise Pascal, the first attempt to mechanize calculation.
1654 - slide rule, the first device, do the calculations quick and widespread.
1801 - loom Joseph Marie Jacquard, the invention punch cards.
1820s - arithmometer Thomas, the first mechanical computing device, is widespread.
1822-1838 - Difference engine, the first attempt to create a programmable computing device.

Electromechanical computing devices

1888-1890 - TAB Hollerith, the first automatic computing device to produce industrial quantities. Later (1896) Herman Hollerith founded the company Tabulating Machine Company, in 1924 renamed the International Business Machines Corporation after the interim name change in 1911.
1937 - Z1, computer, developed by Konrad Zuse was the first computing device that works on binary logic and applies floating-point arithmetic.
1943 - "Mark I», the first computer manufactured by IBM.
Electronic computing devices [edit | edit wiki text]
1946 - ENIAC; 1948 - Manchester MEM «Baby»; 1949 - EDSAC - the first computer.
April 7, 1964, IBM announced the creation of a family of computers System 360 - the first series of scalable computers, later became an example of an open standard, when a manufacturer of computer equipment could produce equipment that is compatible with other manufacturers' equipment; widespread System 360 has established a de facto standard byte consisting of 8 bits, and put into wide use hexadecimal notation in programming.

Theoretical developments, which have found use in personal computers

XVII century - a description of Leibniz binary system.
1847-1854 - the invention of Boolean algebra based on the binary system.
1940-1948 - the understanding that the work of logical electrical circuits identical Boolean algebra and the development of information theory by Claude Shannon.
mid-1940s - the development of von Neumann architecture.
1957 - first implemented high-level programming language, which was called Fortran.
In 1964, the American Standards Association takes a new 7-bit standard for the exchange of information ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange).
In 1964, John Kemeny and Thomas Kurtz at Dartmouth College, developed the programming language BASIC. This programming language with various modifications as are used in almost all personal computers and home 1970-80s.
In 1973, Xerox PARC research center has provided Xerox Alto - the world's first computer with a sample window (GUI) interface.

The advent of technology, found application in personal computers

Transistors
December 23, 1947 three scientists in laboratories Bell Labs, William Shockley, Walter Brattain and John Bardeen invented the transistor amplifier point that will reduce the size of computers, previously used vacuum tubes.
In September 1958, Jack Kilby of Texas Instruments' built the first electronic chip, where the five components have been integrated on a single board of germanium size of 1.5 cm in length and 1.2 mm in thickness.
In 1959, Robert Noyce of Fairchild Semiconductor, built integrated electronic chip, where the components are connected to each other by aluminum lines on the oxidized surface of silicon (silicon-oxide).
In 1960 the company introduced the first minicomputer DEC PDP-1 (Programmed Data Processor), which costs $ 120 000. It was the first commercial computer equipped with a keyboard and monitor.
In 1963, Douglas Engelbart invented the computer mouse.
In 1965, Gordon Moore, director of research and development at Fairchild Semiconductor formulates a conclusion based on observations of the dynamics of development of chip technology. This formulation is named Moore's Law: the density of transistors in integrated chips will double every 24 months over the next ten years.
June 4, 1966 the US Patent Office issues a Dr. Robert Dennard of IBM's patent number 3,387,286 on odnotranzistornuyu memory (DRAM Dynamic Random Access Memory - Dynamic Random Access Memory) and the basic idea of ​​3-transistor memory cell. This type of memory is now widely used for short-term storage of information.
In 1966, Robert Noyce and Gordon Moore base corporation Intel. This company starts with the creation of microchips memory, but gradually turns into a company producing microprocessors.
In 1966, Douglas Engelbart of Stanford Research Institute, is a system consisting of alphabetic keyboard, numeric keypad, mouse and software that supports information output to the screen in different "windows". At the demonstration show text editor system allows building of links to information and program collaboration.
In 1969, the Pentagon creates four node network ARPAnet - prototype of the modern Internet. Day 2 September 1969 is considered the birthday of the Internet.
1971 - The invention of a floppy disk, a floppy disk with a diameter of 200 mm (8 "). In the late 1970s floppy size decreased to 133 mm (5.25 ") in 1981 and to 90 mm (3.5").
1971 - the first appearance of a microprocessor (CPU is placed on the IC chip) Intel 4004. This processor has a 4-bit word length, and has been used, for example, calculators or traffic lights control circuits. Of microprocessors of the 1970s, found application in personal computers, it is worth mentioning the 8-bit Intel 8008, Intel 8080, Zilog Z80, National Semiconductor SC / MP [en], MOS 6502, Motorola 6800 and 16-bit Intel 8086, Intel 8088 .

Background to the appearance of personal computers

In 1950-60h's computers were available only to large companies because of its size and price. In the competition for higher sales companies producing computers, sought to reduce the cost and miniaturization of its products. For this purpose all the latest achievements of science: magnetic core memory, transistors, and finally the chip. By 1965, the mini-computer PDP-8 occupy a volume comparable to the household refrigerator, the cost was about 20 thousand. Dollars, in addition, a trend toward further miniaturization.
In May 1966, Steven Gray founds the computer fans (Amateur Computer Society), or ACS, and began to publish news of the club.
Numerous enthusiasts who are interested in exploring the possibilities of computers, trying to squeeze everything possible from the available materials then. For example, the first programming language interpreter for the PC was written on the initiative of two students, and the history of Apple began with a garage, as the founders did not have another room.
In 1975, Bill Gates and Paul Allen decided to write a BASIC interpreter for the Altair 8800 computer and founded the company Micro-Soft, specialized in software development for computers.
April 1, 1976, Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak founded the company Apple Computer.
Availability of personal computers has stimulated the writing of software; in turn a wide range of software developed to stimulate further dissemination and use of personal computers in society.
Volumes of sales of personal computers in the late 1970s were not high, but for a completely new product commercial success was stunning. The reason for this was the emergence of software that covered the needs of users in data processing automation. In the early 1980s were the most popular programming language for "dummies» BASIC, word processor WordStar (destination "hot" keys which are still in use) and spreadsheet VisiCalc, overgrown so far in giant called Excel. The business world around the world saw that buy computers very beneficial: they can become possible to carry out much more efficient accounting calculations, draft documents, and so on. As a result, it was found that for many organizations they need to perform calculations can not mainframe and personal computers, which is much cheaper. Distribution of personal computers by the end of the seventies led to some reduction in demand for large and minicomputers. This was the subject of serious concern corporation IBM - a leading company manufacturing computers.
In 1979, IBM management decided to make a sort of small experiment (something like one of dozens held in the company of works on creation of new equipment) - try their hand in the PC market ("if other companies have started production of personal computers, then why we do not try? "). To this experiment did not spend too much money, the firm's management has provided the unit responsible for the project, unprecedented in the company freedom. In particular, he was allowed not to design a personal computer "from scratch", and use the blocks made by other companies. And this unit to fully use the provided opportunity. First of all, as the main microprocessor computer was selected then the newest 16-bit microprocessor Intel 8088. Its use has greatly increased the potential of the computer as a new microprocessor allows to work with 1 MB of memory, while all available then computers based on 8 bits were limited to 64 kilobytes. The computer was used and other components of various companies, and its software has been commissioned to design a small company Microsoft.
In August 1981 a new computer called the IBM 5150 was officially presented to the public and soon after he gained a lot of popularity among users. After one or two years an IBM PC became the standard personal computer. Now these computers ("compatible with the IBM PC») make up a significant portion of all of the world's personal computers.
The success of the IBM PC stems from the surprising failure IBM to license any components of the new machine in conjunction with an open architecture, scalability and affordable price. Innovation can be called unless the establishment BIOS - built-in interface for isolation of specific features of the "hardware" of the program - but hardly buyers might appreciate this innovation at that time. But third-party manufacturers were able to make fully compatible clones and expansion modules without any legal and financial problems. In addition, widely used in IBM PC purchased items which reduced startup cost of production. Already by 1986, IBM is losing market leadership IBM PC-compatible computers in favor of specialized companies and assemblers. To have survived some brands assembly companies of those times: Dell, Compaq and others.

Personal computers from the appearance to modern days

The first personal computers (1960-1980's)
In 1969, Honeywell produces "Kitchen Computer» H316 - the first home computer (value $ 10,600).
In 1972 he was released Magnavox Odyssey - the world's first home game console.

The Altair 8800 with 8-inch drive
In 1974, the company started production of computer MITS Altair 8800, which is believed to be initiated to all amateur personal computers. One of the reasons for the success of this computer was the simplicity of architecture with respect to the "big computer".
In 1975, the firm MOS Technology, Inc. started the production of computer KIM-1, which, at a cost of 245 US dollars had a more friendly interface compared with the popular and more expensive the Altair 8800, which made him very popular among radio amateurs and enthusiasts.

Apple I, one of the first personal computers
In 1976 he began production of artisanal Apple I - computer, which served as the precursor to the development of a modern personal computer manufacturers, Apple Computer.

Apple II, one of the best personal computers of the late 1970s
In June 1977, the first commercially unreleased Apple II offered users an integrated keyboard, color graphics, sound, plastic housing and eight expansion slots. Unlike all previous computers, «Apple II» more looked like an office device, rather than as a set of electronic equipment, had a built-BASIC interpreter, and was much more friendly to the inexperienced user. Thus «Apple II» initiated a revolution in personal computers: it was a machine for the masses, not just for lovers, scientists or engineers.
In August 1977, began production of Tandy Radio Shack TRS-80 - the first home computer, costing less than $ 600.
In December 1977, there was Commodore PET - the first computer in the package which included a keyboard, monitor, tape drive (special brand tape).
In 1978 went on sale Sinclair Mk14 at a price of 39.95 pounds.
In November 1979, starting the massive sales of home PCs Atari 400/800. As the development of the popular Atari 2600 consoles, these models have served as a start for a whole line of very popular home computers.
In 1980, TRS-80 Color Computer for the first time in a personal computer used multiuser, multitasking operating system OS-9.
In 1980 he released for sale Sinclair ZX80 - the first personal computer for home use at the cost of less than 100 pounds.
In June 1981, was released Texas Instruments TI-99 / 4A - the first home computer with a 16-bit processor Texas Instruments TMS9900.

IBM PC 5150
August 12, 1981, IBM introduced the first model of the public PC IBM PC 5150, which became the actual ancestor of modern personal computers on the architecture of Intel x86.
In 1981 he began selling the Commodore VIC-20. At the start of sales it was the cheapest personal computer in the US (the price below $ 300). Nevertheless, similar Sinclair ZX81 released at the same time at the start of sales in Britain costs just 49.95 pounds. Nevertheless, the VIC-20 - the first computer in the world that has overcome the bar of one million copies sold.
In 1981, the Sinclair ZX81 - cost only 49.95 pounds as a set for assembly and 69.95 pounds - assembled and ready to use.
In April 1982 ZX Spectrum - the best-selling English computer; helped the formation of the software industry in the United Kingdom. In particular, for his merits in the development of society (not just the production of computers), the company's founder, Sir Clive Sinclair Research Sinclair was awarded a knighthood lower "Knight of the Royal Order."
In August 1982, began selling the Commodore 64 - became the best selling computer of all time: sold more than 20 million vehicles.
In 1983, the standard was developed MSX home computer architecture; this standard computers manufactured by various companies primarily in Japan.
In 1983 replaced the IBM PC came IBM PC / XT, includes a hard disk.
In March 1983, Compaq started selling Compaq Portable - the first portable computer, as well as the first clone series computers IBM PC.
In 1983 he began selling Apple Lisa - an ambitious project Apple, the failed, but set the stage for success as Apple Macintosh, and Microsoft Windows (graphical environment first, and then the operating system)
In January 1984 - the first successful mass-produced personal computer with a manipulator of the "mouse" and a fully graphical interface, called the Apple Macintosh, that is, the first successful computer, implement the ideas laid down in the Xerox Alto on an industrial scale.

Amiga 1000
In 1984 Amiga Corporation in the face Erjen Michael and Dave Morse marching first personal multimedia computer Amiga 1000. Demonstration "Boeing» (Boeing) showed how three-dimensional ball, painted red and white squares in a three-dimensional flying the same room and with a roar hits the wall.
In 1984 - the first commercially available domestic PC "AGAT".
April 3, 1986 - the first IBM PC Convertible laptop from the company IBM.

Events computer world 1990-2000-ies

1990
Microsoft released Windows 3.0.
Tim Berners-Lee developed the language of HTML (Hypertext Markup Language - hypertext markup language, the basic format of Web-documents) and the prototype of the World Wide Web.

1991
Microsoft released OS Windows 3.1.
Designed graphical format JPEG
Philip Zimmermann came up with PGP, encryption of messages with the public key.

1992
There was the first free operating system with great potential – Linux. Author of this system, a Finnish student, Linus Torvalds decided to experiment with the commands of the Intel 80386 and what happened posted on the Internet. Hundreds of programmers from around the world began to build upon and alter the program. It has evolved into a fully functional running operating system. History is silent about who decided to call it Linux, but how did this name - it is understandable. «Linu» or «Lin» on behalf of the creator and the "x" or «ux» - from UNIX, as the new OS was very like her, but now works on computers with x86 architecture.
DEC introduced the first 64-bit processor RISC Alpha.

1993
Intel introduced a 32-bit microprocessor Pentium, which consisted of 3.1 million transistors and can perform 112 million operations per second.
There was a video compression format MPEG.

1994
Launch of the Power Mac series by the company Apple Computers - Power PC.

1995
DEC company announced the release of five new models of personal computers Celebris XL.
NEC has announced the completion of development of the world's first chip with a storage capacity of 1 GB.
There was Windows 95.
SUN introduced the programming language Java.
Appeared format RealAudio - alternative MPEG.

1996
Microsoft released Internet Explorer 3.0 - quite a serious competitor to Netscape Navigator.

1997
The company Apple has released OS Macintosh OS 8.

1998
Microsoft released Windows 98 operating system.

Answer 2

Good job! Make sure to submit this one also into the tutorial forms! :D :D

Answer 3

that is a nice tutorial

Answer 4

i will make it look a little better @ksanka by applying latex. if you dont mind