Question

\[\LARGE {\bf \color{#408A85 }{ Deoxyribonucleic~Acid}~\ \cal \color{ #CC578C }{DNA}} \]

Answer 1

\[\large {\sf }{ What~is~DNA,~and~why~is~\it~important?}\]DNA stands for \(\cal{{ Deoxyribonucleic ~ acid }}\) and it's a genetic material that contains all the biological instructions that makes it unique in every organism. All organisms have their own distinct genetic makeup in DNA, just like how each individual has its distinct fingerprint. This explains why organisms are different from one another due to the differences they have in their DNA. A sample from an individual's DNA can be taken if investigating crime scenes. If the DNA matches, then the consequences can be indicated. DNA are molecules that normally \(\color{green}{ carry~genetic~ codons }\) and instructions for formation of \(\color{green}{ proteins }\), creates \(\color{green}{ genes }\) which determines inherited traits, and gets copied when new cells are formed through \(\color{green}{ Mitosis~and~Meiosis}\).
\[\large {\sf }{ Where~can~DNA~be~found?}\]DNA is found in all living things that are capable of growing and reproducing. In eukaryotic cells, all the genetic materials are stored in a \(\bf{{ nucleus }}\). The nucleus contains chromosomes, and in every duplicated chromosomes there's DNA found in the chromatin fiber usually wrapped around histones in \(\bf{{ double ~ helix }}\) structure.
Overview:
\[ \bf \color{#408A85 }{Cell} \dashrightarrow \bf \color{#408A85 }{Nucleus} \dashrightarrow \bf \color{#408A85 }{ Chromosomes } \dashrightarrow \bf \color{#408A85 }{ Genes }\dashrightarrow \bf \color{#CC578C}{ DNA }\]

Answer 2

Since Prokaryote cells lack membrane bound organelles including the nucleus, its genetic materials aren't housed like eukaryotes. That doesn't mean Prokaryotes lack DNA, but it is not bound within a nucleus like the eukaryotes. Their DNA are structured in a \(\bf{{single~loop~circular ~double ~stranded }}\) DNA located in the cytoplasm which is also called a \(\bf{{nucleoid}}\). Eukaryote's DNA is highly organized in chromosomes whereas prokaryotes do not.

Answer 3

\[\large {\sf }{ What~is~DNA~made~out~of?}\]DNA is made up of atoms of Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, and Phosphorous. When zooming out, DNA's structural component is the \(\bf{{ sugar-phosphate~ backbone }}\). The backbone of the DNA strands repeats the pattern of sugar groups and phosphate groups.
When zooming in, we get to see the building blocks or the monomers of DNA which are referred to as nucleotides. \(\bf{{ Nucleotides}}\) are organic-one-sugar molecule made up of five-carbon sugar called \(\bf{{ deoxyribose }}\), a \(\bf{{ nitrogen~base}}\) attached to the sugar, and a \(\bf{{ phosphate~ group}}\).

Answer 4

\[\large {\sf}{ What~ Are ~ Nitrogenous ~ Bases~ and~Why~Are~They~Important?}\]Nitrogenous bases are molecules that contains nitrogen along with chemical properties of 5 different types of bases. They are used to construct nucleotides and are major building blocks of DNA and RNA.
\[\it {4 (Four)~types~of~Nitrogenous~Base~found~in~DNA}\]\[\bf \color{red}{*Adenine}~\bf \color{green}{*Guanine }~\bf \color{blue}{*Cytosine }~ \bf \color{brown}{*Thymine} \]\[\it {4 (Four)~types~of~Nitrogenous~Base~found~in~RNA}\]\[\bf \color{red}{*Adenine}~\bf \color{green}{*Guanine }~\bf \color{blue}{*Cytosine }~ \bf \color{purple}{*Uracil} \]
Adenine and Guanine are \(\bf{{ purine }}\) and Cytosine, Thymine, and Uracil are \(\bf{{ pyrimidine }}\). Each base-pair in DNA consists of 1 purine and 1 pyrimidine which gives a 1:1 ratio of purines to pyrimidines and it explains why 1 type of purine gets paired with 1 type pf pyrimidine.
Complimentary base pairings determines how nitrogenous bases are aligned with each other in the DNA. From this pairing, we get to know that certain bases will always pair up (gets hydrogen bonded) with certain bases. \[\bf \color{red}{*Adenine}~~\to~ \bf \color{brown}{*Thymine}~~~~ A-T \]\[\bf \color{blue}{*Cytosine }~~\to~ \bf \color{green}{*Guanine }~~~~ C-G \] These nucleotides gets attached to their pair by weak \(\bf{{ hydrogen ~ bonds }}\) making the two strands of DNA held together, given a twisted figure to the DNA.

Answer 5

\[\LARGE {\bf \color{#CC578C }{ DNA }~\ \cal \color{#408A85 }{Replication}} \]\[\large {\sf}{ What~ is~ DNA ~ replication?}\] DNA replication indicates when DNA makes exact copies of itself. This happens when a cell undergoes cell division, particularly occurs during interphase. Where DNA gets duplicated from the parent cell and pass its genetics information to the daughter cells. This means that every cell in our body contains the same DNA with the same exact information because our DNA keeps getting replicated over and over again in every cell division process. This biological sequence occurs in all living organisms!
\[\large {\sf}{ How~ is ~ DNA ~ replicated?}\]In the beginning of DNA replication, a \(\bf{{ helicase}}\) binds to any section of DNA and causes it to split apart or unzips/unwinds the DNA. Several \(\bf{{ DNA ~ polymerase }}\) molecules bind to the unzipped DNA, and begins catalyzing a copy of the DNA by assembling complementary nucleotides. Subsequently, enzymes go down the DNA strands, and correct any errors. These errors are called \(\bf{{ mutations}}\). The coding of the base pairing rules and modifying enzymes minimizes the changes of a mutation.
\(\sf\color{blue }{ STEP~1: }\) Establishing of the origin of replication.
\(\cal\color{green }{ Origin~of~Replication }\),: An area where the replication of DNA molecules generally begins at a specific sequence of nucleotides.
\(\sf\color{blue }{ STEP~2: }\) \(\cal\color{green }{ DNA~ Helicase }\) is an enzyme that comes along on the origin and unzips/unwinds the parental double strand DNA helix separating the weak hydrogen bonds between the nucleotides. A junction will exist where the double-stranded DNA splits apart, this open part is called a \(\cal\color{green }{ replication ~ fork }\).
\(\sf\color{blue }{ STEP~3: }\) DNA polymerase joins the sugar phosphate backbone and begins catalyzing copies to the new DNA strand by assembling complementary nucleotides moving along the template strand in a 3' to 5' direction.

Answer 6

\(\sf\color{blue }{ STEP~4: }\) Two strands are being separated and each are synthesized in the opposite direction. One strand is the \(\cal\color{green }{ leading ~ strand }\) and it goes in the same direction the helicase unwinds that runs in the 3' to 5' direction in the route of the fork. The leading strand is able to be replicated by the DNA polymerase continuously.
\(\sf\color{blue }{ STEP~5: }\) The other strand is known as the \(\cal\color{green }{ lagging ~ strand }\) and it goes in the 5' to 3' direction toward the fork and away from the helicase. The lagging strands is synthesized in multiple \(\cal\color{green }{ Okazaki ~ fragments }\) because the helicase moves in the opposite direction causing an additional polymerase bonded down the chain. The lagging strand is replicated discontinuously. In the lagging strand, Okazaki fragments gets bonded together by another enzyme called \(\cal\color{green }{ DNA ~ ligase }\).
\(\sf\color{blue }{ STEP~6: }\) At the end of the replication, 2 identical are formed and each consist of 1 old strand and 1 newly synthesized strand.

Answer 7

Image1: http://publications.nigms.nih.gov/thenewgenetics/chapter1.html
Image2: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/167063/DNA
Image3: http://staff.jccc.net/pdecell/biochemistry/nucleotides.html
Image4: http://education-portal.com/academy/lesson/nucleic-acids-function-structure-quiz.html
Image5: http://img.sparknotes.com/figures/A/a0d1b3a1aaed46e29034f996722dd1a1/repfork2.gif
Image6: http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/R/ReplicationFork.gif

Answer 8

If I have skipped a step, feel free to report it. Also, I apologize for any grammar mistakes!

Answer 9

This is interesting, but this is nothing new from a textbook, which many MANY people have already written.
Just include a video next time: http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/molecules/dna/

Answer 10

Thanks for including the video @abb0t ! I'm making a tutorial for openstudy and i chose this topic. There's nothing new from a textbook that I provided but wanted to share a basic understanding of DNA and its replication procedure. I will do transcription and translation of RNA to proteins next time :)

Answer 11

i like \(\color{red}{A}\)-\(\color{blue}{C}\)-\(\color{green}{G}\)-\(\color{brown}{T}\)
color s are \(\color{purple}{AWESOME}\)
good :))

Answer 12

Thanks @nnesha :)

Answer 13

np :)

Answer 14

Good Job!